Last updated: June 27, 2026
The Two Boundaries
What encryption can't save you from.
Data in use The second you unlock a drive, open a vault, or decrypt a message on screen, it's plaintext in RAM. Malware and running‑device seizures walk right past the strongest cipher.
Lost keys Forget your VeraCrypt passphrase or lose the only device that can decrypt your cloud backup, and it's gone — not "call support" gone, thermodynamically gone. It's correct behaviour.
Metadata PGP encrypts the message body. Signal protects content. Neither hides who talked to whom, when, or from where. The envelope is the tell.
Layer 01 - Full‑Disk
| Platform | Tool | Encryption |
|---|---|---|
| macOS | FileVault | XTS‑AES‑128 / SE |
| Windows Pro+ | BitLocker | XTS‑AES‑256 / TPM |
| Windows Home | VeraCrypt | (not specified) |
| Linux | LUKS2 | AES‑XTS / Argon2id |
| Cross‑platform | VeraCrypt | AES‑256‑XTS / PBKDF2 |
The disk layer, by platform. All on by default on modern hardware. The catch is recovery: BitLocker and FileVault escrow keys to Microsoft and Apple unless you take control.
Layer 03 - Cloud
Zero‑knowledge, two ways.
Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive encrypt your files — and hold the keys. Real E2EE means the provider can't decrypt. Pick one:
PATH A: Native E2EE provider
- Proton Drive (Swiss, open‑source)
- Tresorit (enterprise, HIPAA/SOC 2)
- Sync.com (best value)
- Seamless UX. Trust the vendor's implementation.
Note: Web-based E2EE requires trusting the provider to serve clean JavaScript for every login. For higher threat models, use local client apps.
PATH B: Encryption layer on top
- Cryptomator over Drive / Dropbox
- AES‑256‑GCM, filenames encrypted
- Free, open‑source, audited
- Keep your current cloud. Add zero‑knowledge.
Layer 04 - Messaging
Post‑quantum messaging, ranked.
STRONGEST
- Signal: Triple Ratchet (SPQR + Double Ratchet), MI‑KEM at handshake and every ratchet shipped beta.
POST‑QUANTUM
- iMessage: PQ3 hybrid protocol, shipped Feb; drops to SMS otherwise.
CLASSICAL ONLY By default, the server holds the keys to your messages and groups
- WhatsApp: Signal Protocol for content. No PQ.
- Telegram: Only "Secret Chats" are end‑to‑end encrypted. Groups are not. (NOT E2EE)
Layer 06 - The Keystone
06/09
Password managers: pick one of four.
- Bitwarden – Open‑source, audited, cloud‑synced. Free for unlimited devices. Argon2id optional. The default for almost everyone.
- 1Password – Closed source, best UX. The 34‑character Secret Key means a server breach still can't crack your vault offline.
- KeePassXC – Local‑first. No cloud. You sync the
.kdbxfile yourself. For threat models where "never trust a vendor" is baseline. - Not LastPass – The 2022 breach is now linked to $438M in crypto (Labs, Dec 2025). Migrate out if you haven't already.
Layer 07 - The Long Tail
The parts no one mentions.
DNS Unencrypted DNS leaks every domain you visit. Turn on DNS‑over‑HTTPS via Cloudflare 1.1.1.1, Quad9, or NextDNS — native on modern browsers and both mobile OSes.
Backups Restic and Borg encrypt client‑side before upload. Neither trusts the storage backend. Your cloud backup is only as safe as the tool making it.
Hardware tokens A YubiKey on your email and password manager kills phishing and credential‑stuffing at the source. ~$50 and a weekend.
VPN (with a caveat) VPNs shift trust from your ISP to the VPN operator. WireGuard is the modern protocol. Mullvad and IVPN are the audited picks.